Old English Language

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{{Infobox Language|name=Old English/Anglo-Saxon|nativename=Englisc|familycolor=Indo-European|region=parts of what is now England and southern Scotland by the [12th century|fam3=[West Germanic|fam5=[Anglic languages|iso2=ang|iso3=ang-->Old English (also called Anglo-SaxonThe term Anglo-Saxon came to refer to all things of the early English period by the 16th century, including language, culture, and people. While this is still the preferred term for the latter two aspects, the language starting from the 19th century began to be called Old English. This is because the language itself began to be studied in detail, and scholars recognized the continued development of the English language from the Anglo-Saxon period to Middle English and through to the present day. However many authors still use the term Anglo-Saxon to refer to the language.
, Englisc by its speakers) is an early form of the English language that was spoken in parts of what are now England and southern Scotland between the 5th century and the 12th century. It is a West Germanic language and is closely related to Old Frisian. It also experienced heavy influence from Old Norse language, a member of the related North Germanic languages group of languages.

Development Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of approximately 700 years (see Timeline of the Anglo-Saxon invasion and takeover of Britain) – from the Anglo-Saxons migrations that created England in the fifth century to some time after the Norman Conquest of 1066, when the language underwent a major and dramatic transition. During this early period it assimilated some aspects of the languages with which it came in contact, such as the Celtic languages and the two dialects of Old Norse from the invading Vikings, who were occupying and controlling large tracts of land in northern and eastern England, which came to be known as the Danelaw.

Germanic origins The most important force in shaping Old English was its Germanic heritage in its vocabulary, sentence structure and grammar which it shared with its sister languages in continental Europe. Some of these features were specific to the West Germanic language family to which Old English belongs, while some other features were inherited from the Proto-Germanic language from which all Germanic languages are believed to have been derived.

Like other West Germanic languages of the period, Old English was fully inflection with five grammatical cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, and instrumental, though the instrumental was very rare), which had dual (grammatical number) for referring to groups of two objects (but only in the personal pronouns) in addition to the usual singular and plural forms. It also assigned grammatical gender to all nouns, including those that describe inanimate objects: for example, sēo wikt:sunne (the Sun) was feminine, while se wikt:mona#Old English (the Moon) was masculine (cf. modern German die Sonne vs. der Mond).

Latin influence A large percentage of the educated and literate population (monks, clerics, etc.) were competent in Latin, which was the scholarly and diplomatic lingua franca of Europe at the time. It is sometimes possible to give approximate dates for the entry of individual Latin words into Old English based on which patterns of linguistic change they have undergone. There were at least three notable periods of Latin influence. The first occurred before the ancestral Saxon people left continental Europe for Britain. The second began when the Anglo-Saxons were converted to Christianity and Latin-speaking priests became widespread. The third and largest single transfer of Latin-based words occurred following the Norman conquest of 1066, after which an enormous number of Norman language words entered the language. Most of these Oïl languages words were themselves derived ultimately from classical Latin, although a notable stock of Norse words were introduced, or re-introduced in Norman form. The Norman Conquest approximately marks the end of Old English and the advent of Middle English.

The language was further altered by the transition away from the runic alphabet (also known as Anglo-Saxon Futhorc or fuþorc) to the Latin alphabet, which was also a significant factor in the developmental pressures brought to bear on the language. Old English words were spelt as they were pronounced; the "silent" letters in many Modern English words, such as the "k" in "knight", were in fact pronounced in Old English. For example, the 'hard-c' sound in wikt:cniht, the Old English equivalent of 'knight', was pronounced. Another side-effect of spelling words phonetically was that spelling was extremely variable – the spelling of a word would reflect differences in the phonetics of the writer's regional dialect, and also idiosyncratic spelling choices which varied from author to author, and even from work to work by the same author. Thus, for example, the word "and" could be spelt either and or ond.

Old English spelling can therefore be regarded as even more jumbled than English orthography, although it can at least claim to reflect some existing pronunciation, while modern English in many cases cannot. Most present day students of Old English learn the language using normalised versions and are only introduced to variant spellings after they have mastered the basics of the language

Viking influence The second major source of loanwords to Old English were the Scandinavian words introduced during the Viking invasions of the 9th century and 10th century century. In addition to a great many toponym, these consist mainly of items of basic vocabulary, and words concerned with particular administrative aspects of the Danelaw (that is, the area of land under Viking control, which included extensive holdings all along the eastern coast of England and Scotland). The Vikings spoke Old Norse, a language related to Old English in that both derived from the same ancestral Proto-Germanic language. It is very common for the intermixing of speakers of different dialects, such as those that occur during times of political unrest, to result in a mixed language, and one theory holds that exactly such a mixture of Old Norse and Old English helped accelerate the decline of case endings in Old English. Apparent confirmation of this is the fact that simplification of the case endings occurred earliest in the North and latest in the Southwest, the area farthest away from Viking influence. Regardless of the truth of this theory, the influence of Old Norse on the English language has been profound: responsible for such basic vocabulary items as wikt:sky, wikt:leg, and the modern pronoun wikt:they, among hundreds of other words.

Celtic influence It has traditionally been maintained that the influence of Celtic on English has been small, citing the small number of Celtic loanwords taken into the language. The number of Celtic loanwords is of a remarkably lower order than either Latin or Scandinavian. However, distinctive Celtic traits have been argued to be clearly discernible from the post-Old English period in the area of syntax.

Dialects To further complicate matters, Old English had many dialects. The four main dialect forms of Old English were Mercian (Anglo-Saxon), Northumbrian (Anglo-Saxon) (known collectively as Anglian dialects), Kentish (Anglo-Saxon), and Late West Saxon. Each of these dialects was associated with an independent kingdom on the island. Of these, all of Northumbria and most of Mercia were overrun by the Vikings during the 9th century. The portion of Mercia and all of Kingdom of Kent that were successfully defended were then integrated into Wessex.

After the process of unification of the diverse Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in 878 by Alfred the Great, there is a marked decline in the importance of regional dialects. This is not because they stopped existing; regional dialects continued even after that time to this day, as evidenced both by the existence of middle and modern English dialects later on, and by common sense – people do not spontaneously develop new accents when there is a sudden change of political power.

manuscript

However, the bulk of the surviving documents from the Anglo-Saxon period are written in the dialect of Wessex, Alfred's kingdom. It seems likely that with consolidation of power, it became necessary to standardise the language of government to reduce the difficulty of administering the more remote areas of the kingdom. As a result, paperwork was written in the West Saxon dialect. Not only this, but Alfred was passionate about the spread of the vernacular and brought many scribes to his region from Mercia in order that previously unwritten texts be recorded. The Catholicism was likewise affected, especially since Alfred initiated an ambitious programme to translate religious materials into English. In order to retain his patronage and ensure the widest circulation of the translated materials, the monks and priests engaged in the programme worked in his dialect. Alfred himself seems to have translated books out of Latin and into English, notably Pope Gregory I's treatise on administration, "Pastoral Care".

Because of the centralisation of power and the Viking invasions, there is little or no written evidence for the development of non-Wessex dialects after Alfred's unification.

Grammar Phonology The inventory of Old English surface phones, as usually reconstructed, is as follows.{]!labiodental consonant!dental consonant!alveolar consonant!postalveolar consonant!palatal consonant!velar consonant!glottal consonant|-|stop consonant| align=center | | | | align=center | | | | align=center | | |-|affricate consonant| | | | | align=center | | | | |-|nasal consonant| align=center | | | | align=center | | | | align=center | | |-|fricative consonant| | align=center | | align=center | | align=center | | align=center | | align=center | | align=center | | align=center | |-|approximant consonant| | | | align=center | | | align=center | | align=center | | |-|lateral consonant| | | | align=center | | | | | |}

The sounds marked in parenthesis in the chart above are allophones:

is an allophone of occurring after and when gemination
is an allophone of occurring before and
are allophones of respectively, occurring between vowels or voiced consonants
are allophones of occurring in syllable coda position after front and back vowels respectively
is an allophone of occurring after a vowel, and, at an earlier stage of the language, in the syllable onset.

{|class="wikitable"! rowspan=2 | Monophthongs! colspan=2 ]! colspan=2 | Long|-! Front vowel! Back vowel! Front! Back|-| Close vowel| align=center | | align=center | | align=center | | align=center | |-| Mid vowel| align=center | | align=center | | align=center | | align=center | |-| Open vowel| align=center | | align=center | | align=center | | align=center | |}

The front vowel mid vowel rounded vowels occur in some dialects of Old English, but not in the best attested Late West Saxon dialect.

{]s! Short (mora (linguistics))! Long (bimoraic)|-| First element is close| align=center | It is uncertain whether the diphthongs spelt ie/īe were pronounced or . The fact that this diphthong was merged with in many dialects suggests the former.| align=center | |-| Both elements are mid| align=center | | align=center | |-| Both elements are open| align=center | | align=center | |}

Morphology Unlike modern English, Old English is a language rich with Morphology (linguistics) diversity and is spelled essentially as it is pronounced. It maintains several distinct cases: the nominative case, accusative case, genitive case, dative case and (vestigially) instrumental case, remnants of which survive only in a few pronouns in modern English.

Orthography Old English was at first written in runic alphabet (Anglo-Saxon Futhorc), but shifted to the Latin alphabet, with some additions, after the Anglo-Saxons' conversion to Christianity. The letter yogh, for example, was adopted from Irish language; the letter eth (letter) was an alteration of Latin "d", and the runic letters thorn (letter) and wynn are borrowings from futhorc. Also used was a symbol for the Grammatical conjunction 'and', a character similar to the number seven (, called a Tironian note), and a symbol for the relative pronoun 'þæt', a thorn with a crossbar through the ascender (''). Also used occasionally were macrons over vowels, abbreviations for following 'm's or 'n's. All of the sound descriptions below are given using International Phonetic Alphabet symbols.

The alphabet

a: (spelling variations like land/lond "land" suggest it may have had a rounded allophone before in some cases)
ā:
æ:
:
b:
c (except in the digraph (orthography) sc and cg): either or . The pronunciation is sometimes written with a diacritic by modern editors: most commonly ċ, sometimes č or ç. Before a consonant letter the pronunciation is always ; word-finally after i it is always . Otherwise a knowledge of the historical linguistics of the word in question is needed to predict which pronunciation is needed. (See Old English phonology#The distribution of velars and palatals for details.)
cg: (the surface pronunciation of geminate ); occasionally also for
d:
ð/þ: and its allophone . Both symbols were used more or less interchangeably (to the extent that if there was a rule, it was to avoid using eth (letter) word-initially, but this was by no means universally followed). Many modern editions preserve the use of these two symbols as found in the original manuscripts, but some attempt to regularise them in some fashion, for example using only the thorn (letter). See also Pronunciation of English th.
e:
ē:
ea: ; after ċ and ġ, sometimes or
ēa: ; after ċ and ġ, sometimes
eo: ; after ċ and ġ, sometimes
ēo:
f: and its allophone
g: and its allophone ; and its allophone (when after n). The and pronunciations are sometimes written ġ or by modern editors. Before a consonant letter the pronunciation is always (word-initially) or (after a vowel). Word-finally after i it is always . Otherwise a knowledge of the historical linguistics of the word in question is needed to predict which pronunciation is needed. (See Old English phonology#The distribution of velars and palatals for details.)
h: and its allophones . In the combinations hl, hr, hn and hw, the second consonant was certainly voiceless.
i:
ī:
ie: ; after ċ and ġ, sometimes
īe: ; after ċ and ġ, sometimes
k: (rarely used)
l: ; probably velarised (as in Modern English) when in coda position.
m:
n: and its allophone
o:
ō:
oe: (in dialects with this sound)
ōe: (in dialects with this sound)
p:
q: – Used before u representing the consonant , but rarely used, being rather a feature of Middle English. Old English preferred or in modern print cw.
r: ; the exact nature of r is not known. It may have been an alveolar approximant , as in most Modern English accents, an alveolar flap , or an alveolar trill .
s: and its allophone
sc: or occasionally
t:
u:
ū:
(wynn): , replaced in modern print by w to prevent confusion with p.
x: (but according to some authors, )
y:
:
z: . Rarely used as ts was usually used instead, for example bezt vs betst "best", pronounced .

Doubled consonants are consonant length; the geminate fricatives ðð/þþ, ff and ss cannot be voiced.

Literature Old English literature, though more abundant than literature of the continent before Anno Domini 1000, is nonetheless scanty. In his supplementary article to the 1935 posthumous edition of Bright's Anglo-Saxon Reader, Dr. James Hulbert writes:

In such historical conditions, an incalculable amount of the writings of the Anglo-Saxon period perished. What they contained, how important they were for an understanding of literature before the Conquest, we have no means of knowing: the scant catalogs of monastic libraries do not help us, and there are no references in extant works to other compositions....How incomplete our materials are can be illustrated by the well-known fact that, with few and relatively unimportant exceptions, all extant Anglo-Saxon poetry is preserved in four manuscripts.

Old English was one of the first vernacular languages to be written down. Some of the most important surviving works of Old English literature are Beowulf, an epic poem; the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a record of early English history; and Caedmon's Hymn, a Christian religious poem. There are also a number of extant prose works, such as sermons and saints' lives, biblical translations, and translated Latin works of the early Church Fathers, legal documents, such as laws and wills, and practical works on grammar, medicine, and geography. Still, poetry is considered to be the heart of Old English literature. Nearly all Anglo-Saxon authors are anonymous, with a few exceptions, such as Bede and Caedmon.

Comparison with other historical forms of English Old English is often erroneously used to refer to any form of English other than Modern English. The term Old English does not refer to varieties of Early Modern English such as are found in William Shakespeare or the King James Bible, nor does it refer to Middle English, the language of Geoffrey Chaucer and his contemporaries. The following timeline helps place the history of the English language in context. The dates used are approximate dates. It is inaccurate to state that everyone stopped speaking Old English in 1099, and woke up on New Year's Day of 1100 speaking Middle English. Language change is gradual, and cannot be as easily demarcated as are historical or political events.

450–1100 Old English language (Anglo-Saxon) – The language of Beowulf.

1100–1500 Middle English – The language of Geoffrey Chaucer.

1500–1650 Early Modern English (or Renaissance English) – The language of William Shakespeare.

1650–present Modern English (or Present-Day English) – The language as spoken today.

Examples Beowulf The first example is taken from the epic poem Beowulf. The translation is quite literal and represents the original poetic word order. As such, it is not typical of Old English prose. The modern cognates of original words have been used whenever practical to give a close approximation of the feel of the original poem. The words in brackets are implied in the Old English by noun case and the bold words in parentheses are explanations of words which have slightly different meanings in a modern context. Notice how "what" was used by the poet where a word like "lo" or "behold" would be expected.

{] for sea) hear(obey) should(owed to),|-| || gomban gyldan. Þæt wæs god cyning!| gifts yield. That was good king!|}

The Lord's Prayer This text of The Lord's Prayer is presented in the standardised West Saxon literary dialect:

{| cellspacing="10" style="white-space: nowrap;"! Line || Original || Translation|-| ||Fæder ure þu þe eart on heofonum,| Father ours, thou that art in heaven,|-| || Si þin nama gehalgod.| Be thy name hallowed.|-| || To becume þin rice,| Come thy rich(kingdom),|-| || gewurþe ðin willa, on eorðan swa swa on heofonum.| Worth(manifest) thy will, on earth also as in heaven.|-| || Urne gedæghwamlican hlaf syle us todæg,| Our daily loaf sell(give) us today,|-| || and forgyf us ure gyltas, swa swa we forgyfað urum gyltendum.| and forgive us our guilts as also we forgive our guilty(lit. guiltants).|-| || And ne gelæd þu us on costnunge, ac alys us of yfele. Soþlice.| And 'ne lead(lead not) thou us in temptation, ac(but) loose(release) us of evil. Soothly.|}

Charter of Cnut This is a proclamation from King Cnut to his earl Þyrcel and the English people written in 1020 A.D. Unlike the previous two examples, this text is prose rather than poetry. For ease of reading, the passage has been divided into sentences while the paragraphos marks represent the original division.

{| cellspacing="10" style="white-space: wrap;"! Original || Translation|-| ¶Cnut cyning gret his arcebiscopas and his leod-biscopas and Þurcyl eorl and ealle his eorlas and ealne his þeodscype, twelfhynde and twyhynde, gehadode and læwede, on Englalande freondlice.| ¶Cnut, king, greeteth his archbishops and his folk-bishops and Þyrchel, earl, and all his earls and all his peopleship, greater and lesser, hooded(ordained to priesthood) and lewd(lay), in England friendly.|-|And ic cyðe eow, þæt ic wylle beon hold hlaford and unswicende to godes gerihtum and to rihtre woroldlage.|And I kithe(make known/couth to) you, that I will be hold(civilized) lord and unswiking(uncheating) to God's rights(laws) and to rights(laws) worldly.|-| ¶Ic nam me to gemynde þa gewritu and þa word, þe se arcebiscop Lyfing me fram þam papan brohte of Rome, þæt ic scolde æghwær godes lof upp aræran and unriht alecgan and full frið wyrcean be ðære mihte, þe me god syllan wolde.| ¶I nam(took) me to mind the writs and the word that the Archbishop Lyfing me from the Pope brought of Rome, that I should ayewhere(everywhere) God's love(praise) uprear(promote), and unright(outlaw) lies, and full frith(peace) work(bring about) by the might that me God would(wished) sell(give).|-| ¶Nu ne wandode ic na minum sceattum, þa while þe eow unfrið on handa stod: nu ic mid godes fultume þæt totwæmde mid minum scattum.| ¶Now, ne went(withdrew/changed) I not my scot(financial support, c.f. scot-free) the while that you stood(endured) unfrith(turmoil) on-hand: now I, mid(with) God's 'support, that totwemed(separated/dispelled) mid(with) my scot(financial support).|-|Þa cydde man me, þæt us mara hearm to fundode, þonne us wel licode: and þa for ic me sylf mid þam mannum þe me mid foron into Denmearcon, þe eow mæst hearm of com: and þæt hæbbe mid godes fultume forene forfangen, þæt eow næfre heonon forð þanon nan unfrið to ne cymð, þa hwile þe ge me rihtlice healdað and min lif byð.|Tho(then) man kithed(made known/couth to) me that us more harm had found(come upon) than us well liked(equalled): and tho(then) fore(traveled) I, meself, mid(with) those men that mid(with) me fore(traveled), into Denmark that you most harm came of(from): and that have , mid(with) God's support, afore(previously) forefangen(forestalled) that to you never henceforth thence none unfrith(breach of peace) ne come the while that ye me rightly hold(behold as king) and my life beeth.|}

References

Cameron, Angus, et al. Dictionary of Old English. Toronto: Published for the Dictionary of Old English Project Centre for Medieval Studies University of Toronto by the Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 1986/1994.

Notes See also

Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law
Anglo-Saxon literature
Beowulf
Declension in English
Dictionary of Old English
Exeter Book
Go (verb)
Grendel's mother
History of the English language
History of the Scots language
I-mutation
List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents
Old English personal pronouns

External links

The Electronic Introduction to Old English
First steps in Old English - a course for absolute beginners
Old English (Anglo-Saxon) alphabet
Bosworth and Toller, An Anglo-Saxon dictionary
Downloadable Bosworth and Toller, An Anglo-Saxon dictionary Application
Old English - Modern English dictionary
The Origins of Old English
Old English Glossary
Shakespeare's English vs Old English
Guide to using Old English computer characters (Unicode, HTML entities, etc.)
The Germanic Lexicon Project
Text Collections - Texts and Translations
An overview of the grammar of Old English

is an allophone of occurring after and when gemination
is an allophone of occurring before and
are allophones of respectively, occurring between vowels or voiced consonants
are allophones of occurring in syllable coda position after front and back vowels respectively
is an allophone of occurring after a vowel, and, at an earlier stage of the language, in the syllable onset.

a: (spelling variations like land/lond "land" suggest it may have had a rounded allophone before in some cases)
ā:
æ:
:
b:
c (except in the digraph (orthography) sc and cg): either or . The pronunciation is sometimes written with a diacritic by modern editors: most commonly ċ, sometimes č or ç. Before a consonant letter the pronunciation is always ; word-finally after i it is always . Otherwise a knowledge of the historical linguistics of the word in question is needed to predict which pronunciation is needed. (See Old English phonology#The distribution of velars and palatals for details.)
cg: (the surface pronunciation of geminate ); occasionally also for
d:
ð/þ: and its allophone . Both symbols were used more or less interchangeably (to the extent that if there was a rule, it was to avoid using eth (letter) word-initially, but this was by no means universally followed). Many modern editions preserve the use of these two symbols as found in the original manuscripts, but some attempt to regularise them in some fashion, for example using only the thorn (letter). See also Pronunciation of English th.
e:
ē:
ea: ; after ċ and ġ, sometimes or
ēa: ; after ċ and ġ, sometimes
eo: ; after ċ and ġ, sometimes
ēo:
f: and its allophone
g: and its allophone ; and its allophone (when after n). The and pronunciations are sometimes written ġ or by modern editors. Before a consonant letter the pronunciation is always (word-initially) or (after a vowel). Word-finally after i it is always . Otherwise a knowledge of the historical linguistics of the word in question is needed to predict which pronunciation is needed. (See Old English phonology#The distribution of velars and palatals for details.)
h: and its allophones . In the combinations hl, hr, hn and hw, the second consonant was certainly voiceless.
i:
ī:
ie: ; after ċ and ġ, sometimes
īe: ; after ċ and ġ, sometimes
k: (rarely used)
l: ; probably velarised (as in Modern English) when in coda position.
m:
n: and its allophone
o:
ō:
oe: (in dialects with this sound)
ōe: (in dialects with this sound)
p:
q: – Used before u representing the consonant , but rarely used, being rather a feature of Middle English. Old English preferred or in modern print cw.
r: ; the exact nature of r is not known. It may have been an alveolar approximant , as in most Modern English accents, an alveolar flap , or an alveolar trill .
s: and its allophone
sc: or occasionally
t:
u:
ū:
(wynn): , replaced in modern print by w to prevent confusion with p.
x: (but according to some authors, )
y:
:
z: . Rarely used as ts was usually used instead, for example bezt vs betst "best", pronounced .

Cameron, Angus, et al. Dictionary of Old English. Toronto: Published for the Dictionary of Old English Project Centre for Medieval Studies University of Toronto by the Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 1986/1994.

Notes See also

Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law
Anglo-Saxon literature
Beowulf
Declension in English
Dictionary of Old English
Exeter Book
Go (verb)
Grendel's mother
History of the English language
History of the Scots language
I-mutation
List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents
Old English personal pronouns

External links

The Electronic Introduction to Old English
First steps in Old English - a course for absolute beginners
Old English (Anglo-Saxon) alphabet
Bosworth and Toller, An Anglo-Saxon dictionary
Downloadable Bosworth and Toller, An Anglo-Saxon dictionary Application
Old English - Modern English dictionary
The Origins of Old English
Old English Glossary
Shakespeare's English vs Old English
Guide to using Old English computer characters (Unicode, HTML entities, etc.)
The Germanic Lexicon Project
Text Collections - Texts and Translations
An overview of the grammar of Old English

Old English language - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Introduction to Old English Language & Script
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